戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记自己整理.docx

戴炜栋简明语言学教程配套笔记自己整理Chapter 1 Introduction What is linguistics? 什么是语言学 A The definition of linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language (对语言进行的科学研究) Process of linguistic study: Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed; Hypotheses are formulated; Hypotheses are tested by further observations; A linguistic theory is constructed. B The scope of linguistics General linguistics普通语言学: the study of language as a whole从整体研究 1.Phonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified) 2.Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning) 3.Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words) 4.Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences) 5.Semantics: the study of meaning in abstraction 6.Pragmatics: the study of meaning in context of use Sociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mind Applied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learning Anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics C Some important distinctions in linguistics Prescriptive vs. Descriptive 规定性与描写性 Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性与历时性 The description of a language at some point in time; The description of a language as it changes through time. Speech and writing 言语与文字 Spoken language is primary, not the written Langue and parole 语言和言语 Proposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological) Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community Parole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用 Proposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological) Competence: the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistics communication. What is language? 什么是语言 A The definition of language Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. (语言是一个具有任意性、用于人类交流的语音符号系统。) a) System: combined together according to rules b) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between a linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for c) Vocal: the primary medium is sound for all languages d) Human: language is human-specific BDesign features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication Arbitrariness There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning. While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary. a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic words b) some compound words Productivity Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness) Duality Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation) Displacement Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to other locations) Cultural transition While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt. The above 5 properties may be taken as the core features of human language. Chapter 2 Phonology 音位学 A The definition of phonetics Phonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages. Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated. Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air. Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds. B Organs of speech Voiceless:清音 when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded. Voiced (Voicing): 浊音when the vocal cords声带 are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect. All the English vowels元音are typically voiced (voicing). The important cavities: The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔 The oral cavity 口腔 The nasal cavity 鼻腔 其他部位：Lips唇1, teeth齿2, teeth ridge (alveolus)齿龈3, hard palate硬腭4, soft palate (velum)软腭5, uvula小舌6, tip of tongue舌尖7, blade of tongue舌面8, back of tongue舌后9, vocal cords声带10 C Orthographic representation of speech sounds：Broad and narrow transcriptions IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association国际语音协会/国际音标) Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics E.g.: làli:f-à a clear l (no diacritic) làbild-àa dark l () làhelp-àa dental l ( ) 表示送气pàpit-àan aspirated ph(h) pàspit-àan unaspirated p (no diacritic) nà5bQtnàa syllabic nasal n (7) D Classification of English consonants In terms of manner of articulation 根据发音方法分 (the manner in which obstruction is created) Stops闭塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly p/b, t/d, k/g Fricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month f/v, s/z, /, /, h (approximant) Affricates塞擦音: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives t/d Liquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth làa lateral sound; rà retroflex Glides滑音: w, j (semi-vowels) Liquid + glides + hà approximants Nasals鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it m, n, By place of articulation根据发音部位分 (the place where obstruction is created) bilabial双唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions p/b, wà(velar) labiodentals唇齿音: the lower lip and the upper teeth f/v dental齿音: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth / alveolar齿龈音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge t/d, s/z, n, l, r palatal腭音: tongue in the middle of the palate /, t/d, j velars软腭因: the back of the tongue against the velum k, g, glottal喉音: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx h E Classification of English vowels The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back; The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open; The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips): All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except B All the back vowels, except A: are rounded vowels The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowels Larynx à (tense) or (lax) Monophthongs, diphthongs Cardinal vowels F The definition of phonology Phonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. G Phone, phoneme, and allophone Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment Phoneme: a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit. Allophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. H Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, minimal pair Phonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, theyre in phonemic contrast. E.g. pin & bin à /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe à /p/ vs. /b/ Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning. Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets. I Some rules in phonology sequential rules 序列规则 Phonotactics of 3 consonants occurring in onset: 如果三个辅音都出现在词首，必须遵循以下三条规则： No1: _/s/ 第一个音位一定是/s/ _voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/ 第二个音位一定是/p/, /t/, /k/ _approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ 第三个音位一定是/r/, /l/, /w/, /j/ No2: The affricates t,d and the sibilants s,z, are not to be followed by another sibilants. assimilation rules 同化规则 Co-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation. Assimilation & elision effects 元音省略 Assimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the other E.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.鼻音化现象 deletion rule/Elision 省略规则 Definition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolation E.g. delete a g when it occurs before a final nasal consonant 省略词末鼻辅音前的g音 J Suprasegmental features Stress重音 Word stress & sentence stress The stress of the English compounds always on the first element Tone声调 Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords. Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.像音素一样可以区别意义 Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones. 汉语就是一种典型的声调语言，有四个音调 Level, rise, fall-rise, fall 阴平 阳平 上声 去声 Intonation 语调 When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tones 四种语调 The falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall tone 降调 声调 将声调 升降调 Chapter 3 Morphology 形态学 A The definition of morphology Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Morpheme:词素 the most basic element of meaning. (A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function最小的意义单位或者语法功能) B Free morphemes & bound morphemes Free morphemes: can stand by themselves as single words à Lexical morphemes n.a.v & functional morphemes conj.prep.art.pron. Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form à Derivational morphemes派生词素àaffix词缀 (suffix, infix, prefix) + root 后缀 中缀 前缀+词根 à Inflectional morphemes 曲折词素à 8 types of inflectional morphemes in English Noun+ -s, -s possessive所有格; plural复数 Verb + -s, -ing, -ed, -en 3rd person present singular第三人称单数; present participle现在分词; past tense过去式, past participle过去分词 Adj + -er, -est comparative比较级; superlative最高级 C Derivational vs. Inflectional 派生和曲折 Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word 只表示语法标志 Inflectional morphemes influence the whole category词的范畴; Derivational morphemes are opposite Order: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional 词根/词干+派生+曲折 D Morphological Rules 形态学规则 N. +lyà a.; A. +lyà adv.; guard overgeneralization E Morphs and allomorphs 语素和语素变体 Morphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemes shapes or phonetic forms. e.g. map-maps s dog-dogs z watch-watches iz mouse-mice ai ox-oxen n tooth-teeth sheep-sheep Each of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme. F Word-formation process Coinageàthe invention of totally new terms Borrowingàthe taking over of words form other languages Compoundingà a joining of two separate words to produce a single form Blendingà taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word Clippingà a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form Back formationà a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word Conversionà category change, functional shift Acronymsà new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words Derivationà the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words Abbreviationà a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete form Allomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, a morpheme may have alternate Chapter 4 Syntax 句法学 A The definition of syntax Syntax: A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and rules that govern the formation of sentences C Types of sentences Simple sentence简单句: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. Coordinate (Compound) sentence并列句: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as “and”, “by”, “or” Complex sentence复杂句: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other Embedded clause子句ßà matrix clause主句 subordinator functions as a grammatical unit may be complete BSome categories Syntactic categories: refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or the predicate句法范畴 Lexical categories: (parts of speech)词汇范畴 Major lexical categories (open categories): N. V. Adj. Adv. Minor lexical categories (closed categories): Det. Aux. Prep. Pron. Conj. Int. Phrasal categories: NP, VP, PP, AP短语范畴 CCombinational rules Are small in numberà Yield all the possible sentences Rule out the impossible ones phrase structure