国外组织行为学课件皮尔森ch07.ppt

Chapter 7Groups and Teamwork,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Chapter 7Copyright 2011 Pear,Learning Objectives,Define groups and distinguish between formal and informal groups.Discuss group development.Explain how group size and member diversity influence what occurs in groups.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Learning ObjectivesDefine grou,Learning Objectives (continued),Review how norms, roles, and status affect social interaction.Discuss the causes and consequences of group cohesiveness.Explain the dynamics of social loafing.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Learning Objectives (continued,Learning Objectives (continued),Discuss how to design and support self-managed teams.Explain the logic behind cross-functional teams and describe how they can operate effectively.Understand virtual teams and what makes them effective.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Learning Objectives (continued,What Is a Group?,A group consists of two or more people interacting interdependently to achieve a common goal.Interaction is the most basic aspect of a group.Interdependence means that group members rely to some degree on each other to accomplish goals.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,What Is a Group?A group consis,What Is a Group? (continued),Why is group membership important?Groups exert influence on us.Groups provide a context in which we are able to exert influence on others.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,What Is a Group? (continued)Wh,Formal Work Groups,Formal work groups are groups that are established by organizations to facilitate the achievement of organizational goals.The most common formal group consists of a manager and the employees who report to the manager.Other types of formal work groups:Task forcesCommittees,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Formal Work GroupsFormal work,Informal Groups,Informal groups are groups that emerge naturally in response to the common interests of organizational members.They are seldom sanctioned by the organization.Informal groups can either help or hurt an organization, depending on their norms for behaviour.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Informal GroupsInformal groups,Group Development,Groups are complex social devices.They require a fair amount of negotiation and trial-and-error before individual members begin to function as a true group.How do groups develop?,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Group DevelopmentGroups are co,Typical Stages of Group Development,Groups develop through a series of stages over time.Each stage presents the members with a series of challenges they must master to achieve the next stage.The stages model is a good tool for monitoring and troubleshooting how groups are developing.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Typical Stages of Group Develo,Typical Stages of Group Development (continued),Not all groups go through these stages.The process applies mainly to new groups that have never met before.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Typical Stages of Group Develo,Stages of Group Development,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Stages of Group DevelopmentCop,Forming,Group members try to orient themselves by “testing the waters.”The situation is often ambiguous, and members are aware of their dependency on each other.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,FormingGroup members try to or,Storming,Conflict often emerges at this stage.Confrontation and criticism occur as members determine whether they will go along with the way the group is developing.Sorting out roles and responsibilities is often at issue.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,StormingConflict often emerges,Norming,Members resolve the issues that provoked the storming, and they develop social consensus.Compromise is often necessary.Norms are agreed on and the group becomes more cohesive.Information and opinions flow freely.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,NormingMembers resolve the iss,Performing,The group devotes its energies toward task accomplishment.Achievement, creativity, and mutual assistance are prominent themes at this stage.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,PerformingThe group devotes it,Adjourning,Rites and rituals that affirm the groups previous successful development are common.Members often exhibit emotional support for each other.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,AdjourningRites and rituals th,Punctuated Equilibrium Model,A model of group development that describes how groups with deadlines are affected by their first meetings and crucial midpoint transitions.Equilibrium means stability.Stretches of group stability punctuated by a critical first meeting, a midpoint change in group activity, and a rush to task completion.Does the sequence sound familiar to you?,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Punctuated Equilibrium ModelA,Phase 1,Begins with the first meeting and continues until the midpoint in the groups existence.The first meeting is critical in setting the agenda for what will happen in the remainder of the phase.The group makes little visible progress toward the goal.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Phase 1Begins with the first m,Midpoint Transition,Occurs at almost exactly the halfway point in time toward the groups deadline.The transition marks a change in the groups approach.How the group manages it is critical for the group to show progress.This transition crystallizes the groups activities for Phase 2.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Midpoint TransitionOccurs at a,Phase 2,Decisions and approaches adopted at the midpoint get played out in Phase 2.It concludes with a final meeting that reveals a burst of activity and a concern for how outsiders will evaluate the product.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Phase 2Decisions and approache,The Punctuated Equilibrium Model of Group Development for Two Groups,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,The Punctuated Equilibrium Mod,Punctuated Equilibrium Model (continued),Advice for managing teams:Prepare carefully for the first meeting.As long as people are working, do not look for radical progress during Phase 1.Manage the midpoint transition carefully.Be sure that adequate resources are available to actually execute the Phase 2 plan.Resist deadline changes.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Punctuated Equilibrium Model (,Group Structure and Its Consequences,Group structure refers to the characteristics of the stable social organization of a group - the way a group is “put together.”The most basic structural characteristics along which groups vary are size and member diversity.Other structural characteristics are group norms, roles, status, and cohesiveness.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Group Structure and Its Conseq,Group Size,The smallest possible group consists of two people, such as a manager and a particular employee.In practice, most work groups, including task forces and committees, usually have between 3 and 20 members.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Group SizeThe smallest possibl,Group Size and Satisfaction,Members of larger groups consistently report less satisfaction with group membership than those in smaller groups.Chance to work on and develop friendships decrease as size increases.Larger groups might prompt conflict and dissension.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Group Size and SatisfactionMem,Group Size and Satisfaction (continued),Many people are inhibited about participating in larger groups.In large groups, individual members identify less easily with the success and accomplishments of the group.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Group Size and Satisfaction (c,Group Size and Performance,Do large groups perform tasks better than small groups?The relationship between group size and performance depends on the task the group needs to accomplish and on how we define good performance.Types of tasks:Additive tasksDisjunctive tasksConjunctive tasks,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Group Size and PerformanceDo l,Additive Tasks,Tasks in which group performance is dependent on the sum of the performance of individual group members.For additive tasks, the potential performance of the group increases with group size.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Additive TasksTasks in which g,Disjunctive Tasks,Tasks in which group performance is dependent on the performance of the best group member.The potential performance of groups doing disjunctive tasks increases with group size.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Disjunctive TasksTasks in whic,Process Losses,Group performance difficulties stemming from the problems of motivating and coordinating larger groups.As groups performing tasks get bigger, they tend to suffer from process losses.Problems of communication and decision making increase with size. Actual performance = Potential performance Process losses,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Process LossesGroup performanc,Group Size, Productivity, and Process Losses,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Group Size, Productivity, and,Group Size, Productivity, and Process Losses,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Group Size, Productivity, and,Group Size, Productivity, and Process Losses,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Group Size, Productivity, and,Process Losses (continued),Potential performance and process losses increase with group size for additive and disjunctive tasks.Actual performance increases with size up to a point and then falls off.The average performance of group members decreases as size gets bigger.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Process Losses (continued)Pote,Process Losses (continued),Thus, up to a point, larger groups might perform better as groups, but their individual members tend to be less efficient.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Process Losses (continued)Thus,Conjunctive Tasks,Tasks in which group performance is limited by the performance of the poorest group member.Both the potential and actual performance of conjunctive tasks would decrease as group size increases.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Conjunctive TasksTasks in whic,Group Size and Performance: Summary,For additive and disjunctive tasks, larger groups might perform better up to a point but at increasing costs to the efficiency of individual members. Performance on purely conjunctive tasks should decrease as group size increases.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Group Size and Performance: Su,Diversity of Group Membership,Diverse groups have a more difficult time communicating effectively and becoming cohesive.Diverse groups might take longer to do their forming, storming, and norming.Once they do develop, more and less diverse groups are equally cohesive and productive.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Diversity of Group MembershipD,Diversity of Group Membership (continued),Diverse groups sometimes perform better when the task requires cognitive, creativity-demanding tasks, and problem-solving.In general, any negative effects of “surface diversity” in age, gender, or race seem to wear off over time.“Deep diversity” in attitudes toward work or how to accomplish a goal can badly damage cohesiveness.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Diversity of Group Membership,Group Norms,Social norms are collective expectations that members of social units have regarding the behaviour of each other.They are codes of conduct that specify the standards against which we evaluate the appropriateness of behaviour.Most normative influence is unconscious; we are only aware of it in special circumstances.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Group NormsSocial norms are co,Norm Development,Why do norms develop?Norms provide regularity and predictability to behaviour.What do norms develop about?Norms develop about behaviours that are at least marginally important to their supporters.How do norms develop?Shared attitudes among members of a group form the basis for norms.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Norm DevelopmentWhy do norms d,Norm Development (continued),Why do individuals comply with norms?The norm corresponds to privately held attitudes.They often save time and prevent social confusion.Groups have a range of rewards and punishments available to induce conformity to norms.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Norm Development (continued)Wh,Some Typical Norms,Some types of norms that exist in most organizations and affect the behaviour of members include:Dress normsReward allocation norms (equity, equality, reciprocity, social responsibility)Performance norms,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Some Typical NormsSome types o,Roles,Positions in a group that have a set of expected behaviours attached to them.Roles represent “packages” of norms that apply to particular group members.There are two basic kinds of roles in organizations:Assigned rolesEmergent roles,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,RolesPositions in a group that,Role Ambiguity,Role ambiguity exists when the goals of ones job or the methods of performing it are unclear. There are a variety of elements that can lead to role ambiguity:Organizational factorsThe role senderThe focal person,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Role AmbiguityRole ambiguity e,A Model of the Role Assumption Process,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,A Model of the Role Assumption,Role Ambiguity (continued),What are the practical consequences of role ambiguity?The most frequent outcomes are job stress, dissatisfaction, reduced organizational commitment, lower performance, and intentions to quit.Managers can reduce role ambiguity by providing clear performance expectations and performance feedback.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Role Ambiguity (continued)What,Role Conflict,Role conflict exists when an individual is faced with incompatible role expectations.There are four types of role conflict:Intrasender role conflictIntersender role conflictInterrole conflictPerson-role conflict,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Role ConflictRole conflict exi,Intrasender Role Conflict,A single role sender provides incompatible role expectations to a role occupant.This type of role conflict is especially likely to also provoke ambiguity.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Intrasender Role ConflictA sin,Intersender Role Conflict,Two or more role senders provide a role occupant with incompatible expectations.Employees who straddle the boundary between the organization and its clients or customers are especially likely to encounter this form of conflict.It can also stem from within the organization.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Intersender Role ConflictTwo o,Interrole Conflict,Several roles held by a role occupant involve incompatible expectations.Competing demands for ones time are a frequent symptom of interrole conflict.,Copyright 2011 Pearson Canada Inc.,Interrole ConflictSeveral role,Person-Role Conflict,Role demands call for behaviour that is incompatible with the personality or skills of a role occupant.Many examples of “whistle-blowing” are signals of person-role conflict.The organization has demanded some role behaviour that the occupant considers unethical.,Copyright 2011 Pearson